Ⅱ. Utilitarianism
Ⅲ. Definition of Good and Evil
Ⅳ. The Definition and Criterion of Justice
Ⅴ. Justice Criterion on Different Relations
of Benefits
Ⅵ. The Source of Human Rights
Ⅶ. The Principle of Equality
Bentham, Hume, Mill, Han Feizi (lived in China more than 2200 years ago), and many other philosophers have implied the principle of utility, but few of them explained the basis of it correctly. Bentham and Mill believed that the principle of utility cannot prove.12 In fact, this principle is only able to be proved by the knowledge of the essence of life. Adam Smith cited the theory of Zeno, the founder of the Stoical doctrine, to explain the origin of utility principle: Every animal was by nature recommended to its own care, and was endowed with the principle of self-love, that it might endeavor to preserve, not only its existence, but all the different parts of its nature, in the best and most perfect state of which they were capable. 13
The principle of egoism of animals leads to the law of jungle. Similarly, the principle of egoism of people also leads to the law of jungle, which is practiced in politics, military, economy, sports and so on, in history and now. Why do not I get my benefit by force, which is often the simplest way, if I can? Why should I care about others and learn to be gentle?
Ⅲ. Definition of Good and Evil
The concept good has two different meanings, one is beneficence opposite evil, another is utility opposite bad or loss. The good as beneficence is different from utility and happiness completely. Happiness belongs to the subject (person who is able to make decisions) himself, while good and evil are characteristics of actions between people. Good and evil, instead of happiness, is the moral criterion of society. Murder and drug trafficking are actions for happiness of the subject, but not agree with virtues.
Confucius noted that the meaning of beneficence is “to love others”. Adam Smith said, “Concern for our own happiness recommends to us the virtue of prudence; concern for that of other people, the virtue of justice and beneficence.”14 The virtues (like wisdom, bravery, abstinence, hope and faith) are often used as instruments of selfishness in battles against others, though they can be used for beneficence, too.